Heresies & Schisms in the Early Church

Written by Robert Jones

robertcjones@mindspring.com

Albigensian worshippers on the banks of the Rhone (Engraving from Wylie)

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Copyright 2001 by Robert C. Jones

  "Scripture taken from the HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION.  Copyright Ó 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society.  Used by permission of Zondervan Publishing House."

Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Introduction

Definitions

Heresy Quiz

Gnosticism

Origins and Influences

New Testament refutations and references

Gnostic Sources

Heresies and Schisms in the First Five Centuries

Simon Magus

Valentinian Gnosticism

Marcion

Response of the Church to 2nd Century Gnosticism

Montanist Heresy

Origen: On the Borderline

Manichaeism

Donatists

Arianism

Pelagianism

Nestorianism

Conclusion

Sources

Other Christian History & Theology courses

 Introduction

In this course we will attempt to look at some of the primary heresies and schisms of the first five centuries of the Christian Church, starting with New Testament references, and continuing through to the battles of St. Augustine against the Pelagians.  Along the way, we’ll examine the Gnostics (against whom much of the Apostles Creed was written), the followers of Arius (against whom much of the Nicene Creed was written), the Donatists, and others.

Why bother to study heresies and schisms that, purportedly died out 1500-1800 years ago?  Because strains of, say, Gnosticism have reappeared in modern religious systems such as the “New Age” movement, which sometimes claims to be compatible with Christianity.  A good example of the modern echoing the ancient might be seen by comparing the following quote from Star Trek V (spoken in a dialogue between Captain Kirk and Dr. McCoy after the enterprise has failed to find “God” in the “center” of the Universe), and a quote from 3^rd century heretic Monoimus:

Star Trek V:  Dr. McCoy:  “Is God really out there?”

Captain Kirk: “Maybe he’s not out there, Bones.  Maybe he’s here – [in] the human heart”

Monoimus:  “…seek for Him from (out of) thyself, and learn…My God (is) my mind, my understanding, my soul, my body…if you accurately investigate these (points), you will discover (God) Himself, unity and plurality, in thyself, according to that title, and that He finds the outlet (for Deity) to be from thyself.” (The Refutation of All Heresies, Chapter 8, Hippolytus, Translated By The Rev. J. H. Macmahon, M.A)

Most heresies in the first five centuries centered around differing opinions on exactly who Christ was, what manner of being he was, and what the relationship was between Christ and God the Father.

Definitions

Before we embark on this journey, we should consider a few definitions.  The term heresy (as it is used today) means:

"An opinion or doctrine not in line with the accepted teaching of the church; the opposite of orthodoxy" (Holman Bible Dictionary)

The term comes from the Greek hairesis, which can mean “the act of choosing”, but was also occasionally used in the Bible to mean sect or party.  The term is used in various ways in the New Testament, as the chart below indicates:

The Gnostics were a prominent example of early “Christians” whose views on doctrine were radically different than those of the established church.

Another term that will prove useful in this discussion is schism, or an "ecclesiastical cleavage".  Schismatics didn’t necessarily disagree with Church doctrine, but rather disagreed with Church Law or practice.  Novatian and the Donatists probably originally fit into this category.  A later example of a schism in the established church was the Protestant Reformation – however, the Inquisition also viewed the early Reformers as heretics. 

Heresy Quiz

The quizzes in my courses are traditional T/F, and usually number 10-15 questions.  Here, we present only one multiple-choice quiz question.  There is only one correct answer, in terms of the accepted doctrines in the Christian Church.  All other answers reflect the views of various early heresies:

Pick the statement below that best describes the being of Christ: 

• Christ was a divine spirit, not a physical man
• Christ was a man that had a divine spirit dwelling within him
• Christ was a great prophet, but not divine
• Christ was divine, but on a lower level than the Father
• Christ was fully God and fully Man; of one substance with the Father

Gnosticism

The primary form of Christian heresy in the very Early Church was Gnosticism.  The term comes from the Greek word gnosis, meaning knowledge.  Gnosticism was vigorously refuted by Paul, John and Peter in the New Testament, as well as by many of the Early Church Fathers, including Irenaeus, Tertullian, Hippolytus, and Justyn Martyr.  General characteristics of Gnosticism include:

• They believed in salvation through gnosis, or knowledge, not through faith.  They often believed that Christ was a revealer of the hidden knowledge necessary for salvation.
• Gnostics believed in a body of secret instructions given to the apostles by Christ, and would point to New Testament verses such as Mark 4:33-34 or 1 Cor 2: 6-7 as indicators of the existence of such a body of knowledge.
• Some Gnostics viewed Christ as a great prophet, but not as being divine
• Many Gnostics believed in Dualism, or the view that there are two Gods of equal power in the Universe - one evil (who created the world and all material things), and one good (who created all spiritual and heavenly things).  The "evil" God was often associated with the Old Testament God.  The battle between the good god and the evil god was often expressed in terms of the battle of the Kingdom of Light vs. Kingdom of Darkness.
• Some Gnostics believed that the soul (created by the "good god") was lured (by the "evil god") into the transitory physical body.  Hence, the goal of humankind is to escape from the evil physical body and return to the godhead, or become one with the "good god".  As a result, some Gnostics believed that one’s soul could go through multiple iterations in an impure physical body (reincarnation).
• The Gnostics believed that there was revealed truth to be found in many religions
• Since the “evil” god created everything worldly or material, the Gnostics believed that all material things are evil.  Two practices came out of this view.  One was an extreme form of asceticism – denial of the flesh – and the other was antinomianism.  Antinomianism basically states that, since the body is inherently evil, but the soul is pure, it doesn’t matter what you do with your body (sort of the “sex, drugs, and rock and roll” view of 1900 years ago).
• Some Gnostics believed that there were different spiritual levels of human beings.  Those on the highest level were guaranteed salvation; those on the lowest level were denied salvation, and everyone in between had to fight for salvation.
• Some Gnostics believed in Docetism (from Gr. dokesis, or semblance), which viewed that Christ was a pure spirit, not a flesh and blood human being.  This view comes out of the dualist viewpoint that matter is created from the “evil” god, thus a manifestation of the “good” god could never exist in a carnal, fleshly form.  (1 John 4:1-4, 2 John 7 may be refutations).

Origins and Influences

By modern standards, Gnosticism seems so different from Christianity as to be a different religion.  As it turns out, Gnosticism was a blend of Christianity with other Middle Eastern philosophies and religions, such as Zoroastrianism and Neo-Platonism.  We examine several of the influences here.

Misuse of Paul and John's writings 

Many of the early Gnostics used parts of the Apostle Paul’s writings as justification for their beliefs.  It should be noted that Paul himself vigorously refuted these misinterpretations of his theology.  Some examples include:

• Col 2:20-23, which is probably a refutation of asceticism, was used by Gnostics as a justification of antinomianism, the aforementioned “sex, drugs, and rock & roll” view
• Some Gnostics said that Paul’s embrace of predestination (Rom 8:29-30) was a validation of the Gnostic view of multiple levels of believers (or levels of spirituality)

Early Gnostics also misused the writings of John the Apostle (who also vigorously refuted the misuse).   Some examples include:

• John’s statement "You shall know the truth, and the truth shall set you free" (John 8:32) was viewed by some Gnostics as validation of the “salvation through gnosis” viewpoint
• Because John uses the imagery of light vs. darkness (John 1:1-14), the Gnostics tried to find a dualist tone to the passages
• The Gnostics tried to find validation for their view of a body of secret knowledge passed on by Christ to the apostles in John 20:30 and John 21:25

Irenaeus (c. 180 A.D.) makes reference to the Gnostic misuse of John in his Against Heresies:

“Those, moreover, who follow Valentinus [a 2^nd century Gnostic], making copious use of that according to John, to illustrate their conjunctions, shall be proved to be totally in error by means of this very Gospel…” (Irenaeus, Against heresies, Book 3, Chapter 11)

Neo-Platonism

A sort of “neo-Platonism” was extant in the Mediterranean in 1^st century A.D.  One proponent was Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria, who believed:

• God is indefinable, and has no contact with carnal (material) substance

• One Supreme force (logos) created the material world ("Word" of God or "Reason" of God)

• Humans strive for freedom from prison of the body

• Reincarnation is possible for those not released at death

Essenes  (“Pious Ones”)

The Essenes, described by Josephus as being one of the three Jewish religious sects or parties extant around the time of Christ, may have been the group that wrote all or part of the Dead Sea Scrolls.  The Dead Sea Scrolls tend to describe earthly life as a battle between good and evil (characterized as the Sons of Light/Sons of Darkness).  The scrolls also refer to two spirits governing man (truth and error).  Note that the Dead Sea Scrolls group solidly believed in the God of Moses, and were in no way dualistic.  However, later Gnostics could have interpreted their language as being dualist.  Two examples follow:

“At the beginning of the undertaking of the sons of light, they shall start against the lot of the sons of darkness, the army of Belial…so that wickedness shall be laid low without any remnant; and there shall be no survivor of the sons of darkness.”  (War of the Sons of Light Against the Sons of Darkness, Burrows, p. 390)

[God] “created man to have dominion over the world and made for him two spirits, that he might walk by them until the appointed time of his visitation; they are the spirits of truth and of error.  In the abode of light are the origins of truth, and from the source of darkness are the origins of error.  In the hand of the prince of lights is dominion over all sons of righteousness; in the way of light they walk.  And in the hand of the angel of darkness is all dominion over the sons of error; and in the ways of darkness they walk.  And by the angel of darkness is the straying of all the sons of righteousness...but the God of Israel and his angel of truth have helped all the sons of light.”  (Manual of Discipline, Burrows, p. 374) 

Zoroastrianism

Various Middle Eastern mystery religions also probably had a big impact on Gnosticism.  One was Zoroastrianism, founded by Persian Prophet Zoroaster (630? - 553? BC).  In this religion, a battle between light (Ormazd) and darkness (Ahriman) features prominently.  Zoroaster believed that new great prophets appear at 1,000 year intervals.

New Testament refutations and references

Gnosticism was already in existence as the books of the New Testament were being written.  Thus, we would expect to see some references and refutations of Gnosticism in the New Testament. 

One possible early reference can be found in Acts 8:9-24, with the story of Simon the Magician.  Simon is the sorcery that tries to buy the power of the Holy Spirit – and is denounced by Peter:

⁹Now for some time a man named Simon had practiced sorcery in the city and amazed all the people of Samaria. He boasted that he was someone great, ¹⁰and all the people, both high and low, gave him their attention and exclaimed, “This man is the divine power known as the Great Power.” ¹¹They followed him because he had amazed them for a long time with his magic. ¹²But when they believed Philip as he preached the good news of the kingdom of God and the name of Jesus Christ, they were baptized, both men and women. ¹³Simon himself believed and was baptized. And he followed Philip everywhere, astonished by the great signs and miracles he saw.

¹⁸When Simon saw that the Spirit was given at the laying on of the apostles’ hands, he offered them money ¹⁹and said, “Give me also this ability so that everyone on whom I lay my hands may receive the Holy Spirit.” ²⁰Peter answered: “May your money perish with you, because you thought you could buy the gift of God with money! ²¹You have no part or share in this ministry, because your heart is not right before God. ²²Repent of this wickedness and pray to the Lord. Perhaps he will forgive you for having such a thought in your heart. ²³For I see that you are full of bitterness and captive to sin.”

²⁴Then Simon answered, “Pray to the Lord for me so that nothing you have said may happen to me.”” (Acts 8: 9-12, 18-24, NIV)

  The New Testament writers, including Paul, John, Peter and Jude, repudiated Gnostic thought in their writings.  Some examples are below.  It should be noted that in a few cases, there might be other groups that are being refuted, also.

Gnostic Sources

Considering most Gnostic sects had disappeared by the 4^th century, we actually have quite of bit of information about their views from two sources – the Early Church Fathers (who opposed them), and their own writings.  Regarding the latter, very few ancient texts of the Gnostics had survived the centuries, until an astounding discovery was made in the Nile Valley in 1945.  A library of 47 Gnostic books were discovered near a town called Nag Hammadi.  While the library contained no source materials (the books were Coptic translations of Greek texts, probably from around 400 A.D.), it remains today by far the most complete collection of Gnostic texts.

Among the more well-known parts of the Nag Hammadi library are Apocalypses of Adam, James, Paul & Peter (the latter not to be confused with the 2^nd century Revelation of Peter referred to in the Muratori Canon), as well as Gospels such as the Dialogue of the Savior, the Gospel of Truth, and the infamous Gospel of Thomas.

Before we look at some examples of these Gnostic texts, we should point out strongly that these texts were known and rejected by the Early Church Fathers, and should not be considered as indicative of mainstream Christian thought in the Early Church.  Irenaeus (c. 180 A.D.) commented on the invalidity of these “alternative” Gospels, mentioning specifically the Gospel of Truth:

“But those who are from Valentinus [a second century Gnostic], being, on the other hand, altogether reckless, while they put forth their own compositions, boast that they possess more Gospels than there really are. Indeed, they have arrived at such a pitch of audacity, as to entitle their comparatively recent writing “the Gospel of Truth,” though it agrees in nothing with the Gospels of the Apostles, so that they have really no Gospel which is not full of blasphemy. (Irenaeus, Against Heresies, Book 3, Chapter 11)

Church Historian Eusebius in 325 A.D. had a list of Accepted, Rejected, and “Impious and Absurd” books in existence at the time of his writing.  Note that the Gospel of Thomas makes the latter list:

"...we have felt compelled to give this catalogue in order that we might be able to know both these works and those that are cited by the heretics under the name of the apostles, including, for instance, such books as the Gospels of Peter, of Thomas, of Matthias, or of any others besides them, and the Acts of Andrew and John and the other apostles, which no one belonging to the succession of ecclesiastical writers has deemed worthy of mention in his writings. And further, the character of the style is at variance with apostolic usage, and both the thoughts and the purpose of the things that are related in them are so completely out of accord with true orthodoxy that they clearly show themselves to be the fictions of heretics. Wherefore they are not to be placed even among the rejected writings, but are all of them to be cast aside as absurd and impious." (Eusebius, Book 3, Chapter 25)

St. Augustine, writing around 400 A.D. commented on a spurious group of Gospels maintained by the Manichaeans:

“In the apocryphal books of the Manichaeans there is a collection of fables, published by some unknown authors under the name of the apostles. The books would no doubt have been sanctioned by the Church at the time of their publication, if holy and learned men then in life, and competent to determine the matter, had thought the contents to be true.”  (St. Augustine, Reply To Faustus the Manichaean, translated by Rev. Richard Stothert, M.A.)

Below are excerpts from several of the Nag Hammadi books, with the Gnostic view highlighted to the right.

Heresies and Schisms in the First Five Centuries

We will now examine some of the specific heresies in the first five centuries since Christ, and also examine the response of the Early Church Fathers.  Ironically, much of Christian doctrine in the Early Church was developed to refute early heresies.

Simon Magus

Several of the Early Church Fathers, including Iranaeus, Hippolytus, and Justin Martyr believed that Christian Gnosticism started with Simon Magus (see Acts 8:9-24).  The quote below is from Iranaeus’ Against Heresy:

“Simon the Samaritan was that magician of whom Luke, the disciple and follower of the apostles, [spoke]…Such was his procedure in the reign of Claudius Caesar, by whom also he is said to have been honored with a statue, on account of his magical power. This man, then, was glorified by many as if he were a God; and he taught that it was himself who appeared among the Jews as the Son…Now this Simon of Samaria, from whom all sorts of heresies derive their origin…” (Irenaeus, Against Heresies, Chapter 23)

Valentinian Gnosticism

One of the most influential of the early “Christian” Gnostics was Valentinus (c. 137), who established schools in Egypt, Cyprus and Rome.  His teachings were later spread by his student Ptolamaeus.  According to Tertullian, Valentinus was denied the sought-after post of Bishop, and then turned against the established church:

“Valentinus had expected to become a bishop, because he was an able man both in genius and eloquence. Being indignant, however, that another obtained the dignity…he broke with the church of the true faith.  Just like those (restless) spirits which, when roused by ambition, are usually inflamed with the desire of revenge, he applied himself with all his might to exterminate the truth; and finding the clue of a certain old opinion, he marked out a path for himself with the subtlety of a serpent.

Ptolemaeus afterwards entered on the same path”…  (Tertullian, Against the Valentinians)

  It would be difficult to describe the complicated theology of Valentinus in a short space, so we will suffice to describe some of the main characteristics of his Gnostic views: 

• The physical Universe was created on account of an error of Sophia ("Wisdom").  The Creator-God (the Old Testament God) created the evil material world.
• The Eternal Being produced emanations in the universe; as the distance between the emanations and the Eternal Being increased, knowledge of him lessened (this was to explain why evil could exist in the cosmos)

•  The aim of Gnostics was to escape the bodily prison, and return to the Eternal Being ("The redemption of the inner spiritual man")

• Christ the redeemer shows the way back to the Eternal Being (through gnosis)
• Jesus was pure spirit (Docetism).  If matter is impure, God could not become incarnate.
• Valentinus believed that redemption is pre-ordained, and that only those towards the top of a hierarchy of mankind/cosmos would be redeemed:

• Pneumatics - the Gnostic initiates; the elect

• Psyche - ordinary church members, with no gnosis

• Choics - the majority of people with no hope of salvation

Marcion

Marcion (c. 85 - c. 160 A.D.) was a Gnostic ship owner, who believed that there were two Gods in the universe (dualism) - the God depicted in the Old Testament, and the God represented by Jesus in the New Testament.  He believed that the God of Goodness took pity on man and sent his Son to rescue him from the evil god.  He believed also that Jesus was a spirit (docetism) and did not appear in the flesh.  As such, he rejected the infancy narratives about Jesus, as well as the crucifixion and resurrection.  On this topic, Tertullian wrote:

“…it was that Marcion actually chose to believe that He was a phantom, denying to Him the reality of a perfect body. Now, not even to His apostles was His nature ever a matter of deception. He was truly both seen and heard upon the mount; true and real was the draught of that wine at the marriage of (Cana in) Galilee; true and real also was the touch of the then believing Thomas… (Tertullian, A Treatise on the Soul)

To accommodate these (and other) Gnostic beliefs, Marcion created a list of books that he considered authoritative.  These included a condensed version of the Gospel of Luke (lacking the Nativity and Resurrection scenes), and 10 of Paul's letters. 

While the gnostic theology of Marcion was roundly condemned by the Early Church Fathers (such as Tertullian above), his list was the first known attempt at defining a New Testament canon, and it prodded the Early Church Fathers to give greater consideration to those books that should be considered authoritative.

Marcion was excommunicated in 144 A.D., and his sect died out by the end of the 3rd century.  According to Tertullian, Marcion attempted to reconcile himself to the church before his death:

“Afterwards, it is true, Marcion professed repentance, and agreed to the conditions granted to him — that he should receive reconciliation if he restored to the church all the others whom he had been training for perdition: he was prevented, however, by death”. (Tertullian, The Prescription Against Heretics)

Response of the Church to 2nd Century Gnosticism

The response of the established church to early “Christian” Gnosticism was to solidify a creed, or basic statement of beliefs, that was in marked contrast to Gnostic beliefs.  The resulting Apostles Creed came out of the 2^nd century church, starting out as a baptismal liturgy, and eventually became the standard statement of Christian belief.  In the chart below, notice the Gnostic ideas that are refuted by the Creed:

Also, in the aforementioned books written against heresy by Early Church Fathers such as Irenaeus, Tertullian, Justyn Martyr, etc., other key points were made that rejected heresy, such as:

• There was no hidden teaching in Christianity, or else the Apostles would have passed it on to their successors in the churches (Irenaeus himself was in a direct line of succession from John the Apostle, through St. Polycarp)

• The New Testament and Apostolic Tradition constitutes the faith of Christianity (Luther and Calvin would later disagree with the latter)

Montanist Heresy

Ancient map, showing location of Phrygia (in what is now Turkey) (Barnes Brief History Series, Barnes, c. 1903)

Around c. 156 A.D., a self-styled prophet named Montanus started to attract followers in Phrygia, Asia Minor.  Montanus wasn’t a heretic in the sense of the Gnostics, but he did preach a doctrine that conceivably could have been threatening to the established church.  Among the characteristics of Montanism:

• Like the followers of Peter Waldo and St. Francis in the Middle Ages, Montanus wanted a return to simpler church, as well as a more ascetic focus for believers (fasting, celibacy, separation from the world)

• Like the later Protestant Reformers, he questioned the authority of church hierarchy, and believed that the Word of God was the only true authority, revealed through the prophets

• He fostered a very charismatic environment, and believed that the Holy Spirit spoke directly through him, and his followers

So what was the problem, as far as the established church was concerned?  The main issue seemed to be about the fact that the Montanists believed that they were receiving Divine Revelation, like the Old Testament prophets.  Some of the bishops of the time (such as Serapion, bishop of Antioch) were concerned that such prophesizing might be viewed on the same level as Holy Scripture – and could interfere with people’s understanding of the core message of the Scriptures.

Around c. 190 A.D., Monatanus was excommunicated, but his movement (which included Tertullian at one point) forced the established church to examine the role of the Holy Spirit in the contemporary church.  In time, the response of church was that revelation ended with the Apostolic Age.  Those with the gift of prophesy after the Apostolic Age were simply explaining the already existing Word of God – not adding to it.

The sect had pretty much died out by end of 4th century, although there is some evidence that it still existed in small pockets as late as the 8^th century.

Origen: On the Borderline

Origen (185? - 254? A.D.), an Early Church Father, was Presbyter of Alexandria.  And yet some of his theological views (influenced by neo-Platonic philosophy) were condemned by Church councils (400, 543 A.D.).  Among his views: 

• Jesus is divine, but subordinate to the Father (John 14:28).  (This view would later be mirrored by Arius in the 4^th century, and lead to the creation of the Nicene Creed as a counter measure.)  Because of this view, he thought that prayer should only be offered to the Father.

• Every human soul has existed eternally – and bodily existence is a result of pre-bodily sin

• All souls would ultimately be saved

Manichaeism

Manichaeism was one of the most influential Gnostic movements of the first several centuries A.D., and it survived well into the Middle Ages in one form or another.  Its Persian founder Mani (216? - 276 A.D.) created a religion that was a curious blend of Gnosticism, Christianity, and the teachings of Persian Magi.  Among the characteristics of Manichaeism: 

• All religions are equally valid

• Dualist - two cosmic kingdoms, which included a Kingdom of Light (the Primal God) and the Kingdom of Darkness (Satan)