Engraving from “The History of Protestantism” by J.A. Wylie (Ages Software, 1997)

Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Introduction

Part I:  Excesses of the Roman Catholic Church

Moral/ethical laxity

Excessive wealth.

Indulgences. PAGEREF _Toc100635089 \h 5

Part II:  The Essential Reformation Theology.. PAGEREF _Toc100635090 \h 7

Justification by Faith - Salvation by Grace. PAGEREF _Toc100635091 \h 7

Predestination.. PAGEREF _Toc100635092 \h 8

Priesthood of believers. PAGEREF _Toc100635093 \h 9

Bible as the sole authority of the Word of God.. PAGEREF _Toc100635094 \h 9

The Universal Church.. PAGEREF _Toc100635095 \h 10

Areas of disagreement among the Reformers. PAGEREF _Toc100635096 \h 10

Part III:  Laying the Foundation - Forerunners of the Reformation   PAGEREF _Toc100635097 \h 11

John Wycliffe (1330?-1384) PAGEREF _Toc100635098 \h 11

Jan (John) Hus (1369?-1415) PAGEREF _Toc100635099 \h 12

Erasmus (1466-1536) PAGEREF _Toc100635100 \h 14

Part IV:  The Revolution Begins.. PAGEREF _Toc100635101 \h 15

Martin Luther (1483-1546) PAGEREF _Toc100635102 \h 15

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) PAGEREF _Toc100635103 \h 21

John Calvin (1509-1564) PAGEREF _Toc100635104 \h 24

Anabaptists. PAGEREF _Toc100635105 \h 30

John Knox (1514(?)-1572) PAGEREF _Toc100635106 \h 34

Caspar Schwenkfeld (1489-1561) PAGEREF _Toc100635107 \h 36

William Tyndale and the English Reformation.. PAGEREF _Toc100635108 \h 40

Sources.. PAGEREF _Toc100635109 \h 43

Other Christian History & Theology courses

Introduction

This book grew out of a six-month course I wrote and taught at Mars Hill Presbyterian Church, Acworth, Georgia, in 1996.  The original idea for the course came out of the fact that many of the members of the class, although lifelong Protestants, freely admitted that they had only a somewhat cursory knowledge of the theology of the founding fathers of the Reformation.  I suspect that there are many other Protestants in the same situation!

To many modern Protestants, the Reformation theology seems quite harsh.  Secularism teaches us that "I'm OK, you're OK", and that "everything one needs to succeed is within".  The Protestant Reformers had a very different view (see section "The Essential Reformation Theology"), which is not necessarily comfortable to many modern, middle of the road Protestants.  However, comfortable theology doesn't necessarily equate to correct theology.

As one reads through the excerpts of the various denominational creeds contained herein, one is struck by the commonality of the creeds - the differences, hard fought at the time, and magnified through the ensuing years, are confined to fairly defined areas.  Overall, the Reformers showed a remarkable similarity in their basic message.

This booklet is meant to be a handbook, not a complete study of Reformation theology, and certainly not a complete history.  Rather, it attempts to capture the key events, and key theological views of the key 16th-century reformers, in a (hopefully) easy to read and easily accessible format.  The booklet does not examine later (post-16th century) Protestant movements, such as the Methodists or Baptists (see my A Brief History of Christian Baptism for the history of the latter).

Also, where feasible, I have let the reformers speak for themselves, quoting excerpts directly from the key Creeds and works associated with them.

One final word for the introduction.  Many people assume that the root of the word "Protestant" is negative, as we use the word "protest" today to describe a negative reaction against something.  However, the root of the word "protestant" actually comes from the concept of "to take a stand".  In 1529, at the Second Diet of Spires, a (pro-Catholic) resolution was passed calling for a restoration of the authority of the Catholic church.  On April 19, 1529, a small Lutheran group issued a formal "Protestation", stating that everyone must "stand and give account before God for himself."

I hope this booklet serves as a useful handbook on the theology of the Protestant Reformation.

Note: The opinions expressed in this book are those of the author.

Part I:  Excesses of the Roman Catholic Church

Moral/ethical laxity

The Roman Catholic Church perhaps reached its low point in terms of moral example in the years surrounding the Reformation.  As, such, the ground was fertile for a backlash. 

The poor moral example started at the very top.  For example, Pope Alexander VI (1431-1503) was known for throwing orgies in the Vatican.  Alexander VI is most well known for fathering a child by his illegitimate daughter, Lucrezia Borgia.

The papacy was also well known for nepotism during the 15th and early 16th century.  Sixtus IV (r. 1471-1484), for example, appointed 6 nephews/grandnephews to College of Cardinals, and appointed an 8 year old boy as Archbishop of Lisbon.  Leo X (the pope that excommunicated Martin Luther), appointed 6 cousins/nephews as cardinals.  The aforementioned Alexander VI (r. 1492-1503) actually appointed his illegitimate son (Cesare Borgia) to the College of Cardinals!

The poor moral example extended downward to the clergy.  By the 16th century, the lax discipline in many monasteries and nunneries in Europe had reached almost epidemic proportions.  Gluttony, sexual excess, avarice and other vices were common in many religious houses, to the point where monks and nuns in many areas became targets of either hatred or derision from local townspeople.  It is no wonder that, when the Reformation came to countries such as Scotland and England, the local populace often joined in with the looting and destruction of the monasteries.

Excessive wealth

The Roman Church was also known for its excessive wealth during this period.  In 1502, the Catholic Church owned 75% of the money in France, and in 1522, the Catholic Church owned 50% of the wealth in Germany.  In early 1500s Scotland, the Catholic church owned more than 50% of the real estate .  The control of such massive wealth excited the envy of secular rulers and merchants alike, and led to the strong support of the Reformation by many secular rulers in Germany and Switzerland.  (Statistics from Manchester, p. 132 & Christian History, Issue 46, p. 2)

Indulgences

Of course, the most famous excess of the Roman Catholic Church during the period of the Reformation was the sale of indulgences.  An indulgence in of itself is nothing sinister - in the Catholic Church, an indulgence is used to signify a remission of worldly punishment due to sin, the guilt of which has already been absolved (during Confession).  Common means of gaining indulgences include prayer, fasting, giving alms, going on pilgrimages. 

However, in the 15th-16th centuries, indulgences were also granted for money.  Typically, the Church sold indulgences to either finance wars, or (a bit more noble reason), to finish the Sistine Chapel.  Matthew 16:19 was often used as the somewhat dubious theological basis for the sale of indulgences:

"And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven."  (KJV)

Of course, the idea of selling "a remission of worldly punishment due to sin" is a concept ripe for abuse.  In 1476, Sixtus IV declared that indulgences could be applied to people in purgatory, so peasants began buying indulgences to get their Uncle Almaric out of purgatory (a place which, of course, the Reformers later stated didn't exist). 

In 1517, Pope Leo X took things a bit further by announcing a blue light special ("feste dies" - jubilee bargain) on indulgences.  Indulgences bought during this period were not just for already committed sins, but for sins not yet committed!  So, for example, if you wanted to steal a chicken, you could buy your indulgence beforehand, steal the chicken, and be comforted by the fact that you were already absolved of your sin!  It should be pointed out, though, that the proceeds of the sale of these indulgences went to the building of St. Peter's in Rome.

A gentleman named Johann Tetzel, who has been described as a "medieval P.T. Barnum", sold indulgences for Pope Leo in Germany from a push cart, in a somewhat huckster-ish manner.  It was Tetzel's irreverent sale of indulgences which eventually led Martin Luther to tack his 95 theses on the door of Wittenberg Castle in 1517.

Part II:  The Essential Reformation Theology

While there were serious areas of disagreement among the reformers, there was a core set of beliefs that united them.  The essential reformation theology is capsulized below.

·        All mankind are unregenerate sinners - there is nothing that man can do on his own to achieve salvation

·        Sin is a massive gulf between God and humans - God sent his Son, Jesus, to redeem the sins of mankind

·        Through faith in Jesus, humans can become reconciled (justified) with God

·        Salvation for humans beings is through the Grace (unmerited favor) of God only - No one is worthy of salvation

·        Mankind is not saved through works - works are a result of justification, not a cause

We will now examine the basic characteristics of Reformation theology in more detail.

Justification by Faith - Salvation by Grace

The reformers believed that man is reconciled with God solely through faith, and saved by the Grace (unmerited favor) of God, not through anything that mankind does on his/her own. This view was a  direct challenge to the Roman Catholic hierarchy of the day, which preached that salvation was a combination of works (which could include giving alms, going to confession/mass, celebrating feast days, etc.),  and faith.

The Reformers often pointed to the Apostle Paul for their support for the doctrine of salvation by Grace alone:

"For by grace are ye saved through faith; and that not of yourselves: it is the gift of God: Not of works, lest any man should boast."  - Apostle Paul, Ephesians 2:8-9 (KJV)

Some additional Biblical passages that discuss these themes are listed below:

Predestination

Perhaps the single most controversial tenant of the Protestant reformation (especially in modern times) is the doctrine of  Predestination.  Predestination is the belief that God has preordained all things, including the salvation or damnation of individual human beings.  In the words of John Calvin, perhaps the most visible (but not sole) proponent of predestination:

"...the eternal decree of God, by which he determined with himself whatever he wished to happen with regard to every man.  All are not created on equal terms, but some are preordained to eternal life, others to eternal damnation..."  ("Institutes of the Christian Religion", Calvin, p. 203)

From a theological standpoint, predestination can be viewed as the opposite of the doctrine of "free will" (and, in fact, there was a notable debate between Dutch Calvinist proponents of predestination, and Arminian proponents of free will in the 17th century).  However, the reformers were not the first theologians to put forth the doctrine - St. Augustine, in the 5th century had a well developed theology involving predestination.  Biblically, the most obvious proponent of the doctrine seems to be the Apostle Paul.

The following table gives some idea of scriptural references to predestination (there are, of course, references that back the free will side of the question, also!):

Priesthood of believers

The term "priesthood of believers" was coined by Luther, but it was a doctrine preached by all of the primary reformers.  It is the view that each individual can interpret the Bible on their own, without external authority, and that individuals did not need intermediaries between themselves and God (priests, bishops etc.)  This doctrine was a direct threat to the European hegemony of the Roman Catholic Church, which based much of its authority on its self-proclaimed right to interpret and act as an intermediary to the word of God.

Once one accepts the doctrine of a "priesthood of believers", an easy next step is the rejection of papal authority, a stand taken by all of the Reformers, imperiling the lives of some such as Martin Luther.

Bible as the sole authority of the Word of God

The reformers believed the Bible was the sole authority of the word of God.  The Roman Catholic view (then and now) is/was that church tradition/councils/teachings were on equal authoritative footing with the holy Scriptures. 

A corollary to the view of the Bible as the sole authority of the Word of God is that the Bible should be available in the vernacular, or the common language of the people.  Prior to the Reformation, the Bible was translated solely into Latin, which was understood by a very small segment of the population (clergy, some merchants, etc.)  Reformers such as Wycliffe, Luther, Hus and Tyndale all translated the Bible to the vernacular (English, German, Czech, and English, respectively).

The Universal Church

Prior to the Reformation, the "Church" was generally defined as the Roman Church, with its papal head.  With the coming of the Reformation, the "Church" began to be defined as the total of the saved, living, dead, or to be born.

Areas of disagreement among the Reformers

While the Reformers generally agreed on key theological issues, there were areas of strong disagreement that led to the proliferation of Protestant denominations that we know today.  Among the areas of disagreement:

·        Infant vs. adult baptism

·        Relationship between church and state

·        The meaning of the Eucharist (Communion).  Essentially, there were 4 views in the 16^th century:

·        Transubstantiation - Roman Catholic Church

·        Consubstantiation - Martin Luther

·        Symbolic - Ulrich Zwingli

·        Spiritual - Caspar Schwenckfeld

Part III:  Laying the Foundation - Forerunners of the Reformation

John Wycliffe (1330?-1384)

Place of Birth: Yorkshire, England

Key Events

Key beliefs

Wycliffe, although he died 100 years before the birth of Martin Luther, had most of the later-Reformation beliefs contained in his theology.  Because of this, he is sometimes referred to as the "Morningstar of the Reformation".  Some of Wycliffe's theological views that were later adopted by the Reformers include:

·        Good works do not guarantee salvation - rather, good works are a sign of the saved

·        Predestination - Wycliffe believed that only Adam & Eve had free will

·        All Christians are "priests" - no earthly intermediaries are needed between man and God (including priests in the confessional)

·        The Bible as the preeminent authority for every Christian

·        Rejection of the sale of indulgences

·        Criticism of the excesses of clergy - Wycliffe believed they should be tried by secular courts when they broke the law.  Generally, members of the clergy in Medieval Europe were tried by ecclesiastical courts, not by secular courts.

·        Denial of Transubstantiation.  Similar to Luther's later Consubstantiation view, Wycliffe believed in the "Real Presence" of Christ during the Eucharist - "spiritually, truly, really, effectively".

There were several areas of Wycliffe's beliefs which were not picked up on by the later reformers.  These views were more typical of religious figures from the Middle Ages such as St. Francis of Assisi:

·        Communal ownership by the righteous (see Acts 2:44-2:47, and 4:32-4:37)

·        Church/clergy should own no earthly goods (a view that would make Wycliffe a not-very-popular figure to the Roman Catholic hierarchy of the time!)

Legacy

Wycliffe's greatest legacy is probably his influence on later reformers such as Martin Luther and William Tyndale.  Wycliffe was the first medieval theologian to publish a Bible in the vernacular, a concept that would later (with the advent of the printing press) prove as revolutionary as any of the actions or theologies of the Reformation. 

A small group of Wycliffe's followers, named the Lollards (poor priests), struggled on after his death.

Jan (John) Hus (1369?-1415)

Place of Birth: Husinec, Bohemia

Key Events

Key beliefs

Hus was a strong follower of John Wycliffe, and he adopted many of his ideas, such as:

·        Christ, not the pope as head of church - Hus defined the church as the total of the saved on heaven and in earth (similar to Calvin)

·        Bible as the ultimate spiritual authority

·        Protested lax practices of clergy

·        Church should have no worldly goods

·        Questioned transubstantiation

·        Wrote in the vernacular (Bohemian, Czech)

Hus also held other views that would later be adopted by Reformers such as John Knox, Martin Luther, and Ulrich Zwingli:

·        Questioned existence of purgatory

·        Rejection of confession, worship of images, and ornate religious rites

·        Condemnation of the taking of fees by priests for baptism, marriage, burials, masses, confirmation

Legacy

Like Wycliffe, Hus's greatest legacy was probably his influence on later reformers.  However, Hus also started a church that still exists today - the Moravian Church.  Some people would argue that the Moravian Church, not the Lutheran or Reformed Church, is the first Protestant denomination - 100 years before Luther tacked his 95 theses on the door of Wittenburg Castle!

Erasmus (1466-1536)

Place of Birth:  Rotterdam (?), Netherlands

Key Events

Erasmus wasn't a Protestant reformer in the sense that Calvin and Luther were - he remained a Catholic until the day he died.  However, Erasmus was an important influence on the Reformation because he was an early and vociferous critic of the excesses of the Roman Church in the Middle Ages.  He wrote a number of extremely satirical tracts, including a play ("Julius Exclusus") depicting a noted pope (Julius II) being denied entrance to heaven by St. Peter.  The fact that he wasn't excommunicated until after his death is a credit to a key factor - Erasmus kept his criticisms within the clerical community (quite unlike Calvin, Luther, Knox, etc.) 

Key beliefs

·        Mocked Virgin Birth, original sin, transubstantiation

·        Called shrines, miracles "bugbears of superstition"

·        Openly criticized the wealth and nepotism of the papacy

·        Attacked lechery in the monastery

Part IV:  The Revolution Begins

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

Place of Birth: Eisleben, Saxony

Key Events

Key Beliefs

Luther had struggled his whole clerical life with the idea that God was a wrathful, judgmental God, and that no mortal man could possibly live a life pure enough to please God.  One day, while sitting on the privy in Wittenburg Castle, Luther had what he later described as a "thunderbolt to my conscience" - the realization that the righteousness of God is not a negative characteristic (i.e. judgmental), but rather a merciful one (justification of sinners through faith).   Romans 1:17 was the spark for this revelation:

"For therein is the righteousness of God revealed from faith to faith: as it is written, The just shall live by faith."" (KJV)

Later, Romans 1:17 would become the centerpiece of Luther's theology, capsulizing his views on justification by faith, and salvation by grace, and grace alone:

"The righteousness of God is the cause of our salvation.  This righteousness, however, is not that according to which God Himself is righteous as God, but that by which we are justified by Him through faith in the Gospel.  It is called the righteousness of God in contradistinction to man's righteousness which comes from works...righteousness (justification) precedes works and good works grow out of it."  (Luther's Commentary on Romans, p. 41)

Luther was also a strong proponent of viewing the Bible as the sole source of Christian belief.  He vociferously rejected non-Biblical tenants such as purgatory, worship of Mary and the Saints, and indulgences (although not infant baptism).  He generally viewed the Bible as literally true (what would be called fundamentalism today), but at the same time, he cast some doubt on the authority of several books in the Bible, including James, Hebrews, and Revelation.

Luther strongly rejected monasticism, which he viewed as the epitome of the "salvation through works" viewpoint.  (The Augsburg Confession had liberal references rejecting monasticism.)  He also rejected clerical celibacy, and he eventually married a former nun, and had 6 children!  However, because he only accepted two of seven Roman sacraments - Baptism and Communion, he viewed that divorce was possible, since he did not accept marriage as a sacrament.

Luther also strongly believed in the Pauline/Augustinian doctrine of predestination, although the doctrine is surprisingly under-represented in the Augsburg Confession, upon which the Lutheran faith is based.

Luther on Predestination

"He [Paul] here takes up the doctrine of predestination or election.  This doctrine is not so incomprehensible as many think, but is rather full of sweet comfort for the elect and for all who have the Holy Spirit.  But it is most bitter and hard for (those who adhere to) the wisdom of the flesh."

 

"God absolutely recognizes no chance; it is only men who speak of chance.  Not a single leaf falls from the tree without the will of the Father.  All things are essentially in His hands, and so are also our times."

 

"The first and most flimsy objection against divine election is this, that man has been given free will by which he can earn for himself either merit or demerit.  To this I reply:  Man's free will without divine grace has not the least ability to secure righteousness, but is totally corrupt."

 

"The third thought (that we could consider in connection with God's eternal election) is that this doctrine is indeed most bitter to the wisdom of the flesh, which revolts against it and even becomes guilty of blasphemy on this point.  But it is fully defeated when we learn to know that our salvation rest no wise upon ourselves and our conduct, but is founded solely upon what is outside us, namely, on God's election."

 

"It is not the characteristic of reprobates to tremble at the secret counsel of God; but that is a characteristic of the elect."

(From Luther's "Commentary on Romans")

Luther was also a strong proponent of the doctrine of a "priesthood of believers", a view which says that each Christian can make their own interpretation of the Scriptures, and that no intermediaries (such as clerics) are needed for a Christian to communicate with God.  Coming out of this viewpoint was Luther's total rejection of papal authority.  He noted that, in the first several centuries of the Church, the Bishop of Rome had no special authority.

One area where Luther's views strongly disagreed with that of other Reformers (Zwingli, Schwenckfeld, the Anabaptists) was in the area of the nature of the Eucharist (Communion).  While Luther rejected the Roman Catholic doctrine of Transubstantiation (defined by the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215) which said that the elements actually turned into the body and blood of Christ during the Eucharist, Luther's Consubstantiation view still promulgated the presence of Christ's body and blood during communion:

"It is the true body and blood of our Lord Jesus Christ, under the bread and wine, given unto us Christians to eat and to drink, as it was instituted by Christ himself."  (Luther's "Small Catechism", Schaff, Vol. III, p. 90)

 Augsburg Confession (1530) - excerpts

Note:  It is generally viewed that Martin Luther produced the doctrinal background for the Augsburg Confession, and that it was put to paper by his follower, Philip Melanchthon.

Of Original Sin: "...after Adam's fall, all men begotten after the common course of nature are born with sin...bringing eternal death now also upon all that are not born again by baptism and the Holy Spirit."

Of Justification: "...men can not be justified [obtain forgiveness of sins and righteousness] before God by their own powers, merits, or works; but are justified freely [of grace] for Christ's sake through faith."

Of New Obedience: "...this faith should bring forth good fruits, and that men ought to do the good works commanded of God, because it is God's will, and not on any confidence of meriting justification before God by their works."

Of the Church: "But the Church is the Congregation of saints [the assembly of all believers]..."

Of Baptism: "...it is necessary to salvation, and that by Baptism the grace of God is offered, and that children are to be baptized, who by Baptism, being offered to God, are received into God's favor. They condemn the Anabaptists who allow not the Baptism of children, and affirm that children are saved without Baptism."

Of the Lord's Supper: "...the [true] body and blood of Christ are truly present [under the form of bread and wine], and are [there] communicated to those that eat in the Lord's supper [and received]."

Of Ecclesiastical Rites: "...vows and traditions concerning foods and days, and such like, instituted to merit grace and make satisfaction for sins, are useless and contrary to the gospel."

Of Christ's Return to Judgment: "..in the consummation of the world [at the last day], Christ shall appear to judge, and shall raise up all the dead, and shall dive unto the godly and elect eternal life and everlasting joys; but ungodly men and the devils shall he condemn unto endless torments".

Of Good Works: "...our works can not reconcile God, or deserve remission of sins, grace, and justification at his hands, but these we obtain by faith only."

Of the Worship of Saints: "But the scripture teacheth not to invocate saints, or to ask help of saints, because it propoundeth unto us one Christ the Mediator, Propitiatory, High-Priest, and Intercessor."

Of the Mass: "This is not only commanded by St. Paul, to use a tongue that the people understand (1 Cor. xiv. 9), but man's law hath also appointed it."

(From "The Creeds of Christendom: Vol. III", edited by Philip Schaff)

Legacy

Luther at the Council of Worms.  Historian Thomas Carlyle called his response of “Here I stand. I can do no other” "the greatest moment in the modern history of man." (Manchester, p. 173)

So why did the theological views of an obscure Augustinian monk light the match that ignited the Protestant Reformation, when earlier reformers such as Wycliffe and Hus had much less impact?  If one were to pick a single factor, it would have to be the development of the printing press.  As the Internet today has democratized the distribution of information and opinion, the printing press allowed views at odds with official Catholicism to receive wide-spread (and International) exposure.   Europe in the 16^th century was ready for a message of reform, and Luther and the printing press delivered it.

It is hard to put into words the effect of Martin Luther.  By successfully refuting the pope and his bull of excommunication, Luther lessened the hegemony of the Roman Church over Europe.  By successfully refuting the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, Luther helped bring about the rise of nationalism.  And, of course, Luther was the spark that ignited the Reformation, which forever changed the face of Christianity in the world. 

Luther’s influence continues in modern times.  On October 31, 1999 in Augsburg, a Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification was signed by the Lutheran World Federation and the Catholic Church.  Among the contents:

“Together we confess: By grace alone, in faith in Christ’s saving work and not because of any merit on our part, we are accepted by God and receive the Holy Spirit, who renews our hearts while equipping and calling us to good works.”

(http://www.lutheranworld.org/Special_Events/EN/jd97e.pdf)

This understanding of justification by faith would seemingly bring the Catholic Church closer to Luther’s interpretation. 

Other legacies of Luther include:

·        As the founder of the Lutheran Church, Martin Luther could view with satisfaction that there are over 7,000,000 Lutherans in the United States alone as of 1994.

·        Luther was the first to use the term "evangelical" to describe the essential Reformation theology.  By some estimates, there are over 65 million evangelical Christians in the United States today alone.

·        Luther was the first proponent of congregational hymn singing in church!

Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531)

Place of Birth: Wildhaus, Switzerland

Key Events

Key beliefs

Zwingli, a contemporary, not a follower of Luther, laid the foundation for the Reformed Church.  As Luther, he believed that mankind is unregenerate, and is saved through the intercession of Christ.  Also as Luther, he believed in the supreme authority of the Bible.

Zwingli also believed in predestination, and took it to some interesting conclusions.  He felt that it would be impossible for God to be omnipotent and omnipresent if he did not "control and dispose" all events.  As Zwingli believed that we were predestined to salvation (or damnation) before birth, this meant that there may be members of the elect among the heathen (Luther was horrified), and that infants that died before being baptized may be saved, if they were predestined to be so.

Zwingli believed that baptism by water can take place without baptism of the Holy Spirit, and that baptism by the Holy Spirit can take place without baptism by water.  In the latter case, the believer is still saved.  Zwingli also believed in infant baptism, a point in which he violently disagreed with his students, the Anabaptists.  To Zwingli, an important element of infant baptism is a profession of faith by the parents, and a pledge to bring the child up as a Christian.

It was the doctrine of what happens during the Eucharist (communion) that caused the biggest rift between Luther and Zwingli.  Unlike Luther, who believed that Christ's body and blood were present during the sacrament, Zwingli took a more symbolic view.  He felt that the bread and wine signify the body and blood of Christ - he therefore rejected transubstantiation and consubstantiation.  He further believed that the sacrament was a commemoration, not a repetition (as in the Catholic faith) of the atoning sacrifice of Christ.  To Zwingli, communion is a visible sign of an invisible grace.

First Zurich Disputation (1523) - excerpts

"All who say that the gospel is invalid without the approbation [confirmation] of the church err and cast reproach upon God."

"Christ is the only way to salvation for all who ever were, who are and who shall be."</